# FFT as a Hylomorphism

20 September 2020

After writing the previous post, I kept wondering what would be a good, more “real life” example of recursion schemes in action. Some days ago, I noticed that one of my favorite algorithms can be written as a hylomorphism.

The Fast Fourier Transform (FFT for short) uses a divide-and-conquer strategy to allow us to calculate the discrete Fourier transform in O(N \log N) (where N is the length of the input). It has a myriad of applications, specially in signal processing and data analysis.

But today I am not explaining it. Oh no, that would require a much longer post. Today we will only use the FFT as an example of how to write a fully fetched algorithm using neither loops nor explicit recursion. Since it is more complicated than the previous post’s examples, this time we will need a real programming language, thus everything will be in Haskell. I did this implementation as an exercise in recursion schemes, so I’m aiming more towards clarity than efficiency in here. Therefore, we will represent vectors using Haskell’s standard type for linked lists. But if you want to adapt it to some other type such as Vector or Array, I think the conversion should be pretty straightforward.

## The Discrete Fourier Transform

One way to look at the discrete Fourier transform is as a exchange between orthonormal bases on \mathbb{C}^N. Given a vector v \in \mathbb{C}^n and a basis e_t, we can write v as1 v = \sum_{t=0}^{N-1} x_t e_t, where (x_0,\ldots, x_{N-1}) are the coefficients of v on the basis e_t. If, for example, v represents a discrete temporal series, its coefficients would represent the amplitude at each sampled instant. In a lot of cases, however, we are also interested in the amplitudes for the frequencies of this vector. To calculate those, we exchange to another basis f_k (related to e_t) called the Fourier basis and write v as v = \sum_{k=0}^{N-1} y_k f_k where the new coefficients y_k are defined as y_k = \sum_{t=0}^{N-1} x_t \cdot e^{-{2\pi i \over N}t k}.

We have our first formula, time to implement it in Haskell! Let’s begin by importing the libraries we will need.

import Data.Complex
import Data.List (foldr, unfoldr)

The functions foldr and unfoldr are, respectively, Haskell’s built-in catamorphism and anamorphism for lists.

The formula for the y’s receives as list of coefficients and returns another list of coefficients

dft :: [Complex Double] -> [Complex Double]

The view we will take in here is that the input represents a parameter and we will build a new list in terms of it. This lends us to the following anamorphism:

dft xs = unfoldr coalg 0
where
dim = fromIntegral length xs chi k t = cis (-2 * pi * k * t / dim) coalg k = if k < dim then let cfs = fmap (chi k) [0 .. dim - 1] yk = sum (zipWith (*) cfs xs) in Just (yk, k + 1) else Nothing If you’ve never seem the function cis before, it is Haskell’s imaginary exponential a \mapsto e^{i a}. The function dft builds the y’s one step at a time. There are N coefficients y_k and each of them requires O(N) calculations, thus the complexity is O(N^2). Although this is not monstrous, it can be a bottleneck for real-time computations. Fortunately we can do better than this. ## The Fast Fourier Transform The function dft implements the Fourier transform exactly as it is defined. However, if you take a look at the coefficients used, you will see that there’s a certain pattern to them. A way to exploit this pattern is encoded in the Danielson-Lanczos Lemma. In even dimensions, the Fourier transform satisfies y_k = y^{(e)}_k + e^{-{2\pi i \over N} k} \cdot y^{(o)}_k, where y^{(e)} is the Fourier transform of its even-indexed coefficients and y^{(o)} is the Fourier transform of its odd-indexed coefficients. \begin{aligned} y_k &= \sum_{t=0}^{N-1} x_t \cdot e^{-{2\pi i \over N} t k} \\ &= \sum_{t=0}^{N/2-1} x_{2t} \cdot e^{-{2\pi i \over (N/2)} t k} + e^{-{2\pi i \over N} k} \sum_{t=0}^{N/2-1} x_{2t + 1} \cdot e^{-{2\pi i \over (N/2)} t k} \\ &= y^{(e)}_k + e^{-{2\pi i \over N} k} \cdot y^{(o)}_k. \end{aligned} Well, that’s a lot of symbols… The important part for us is that we can break the DFT into two smaller problems and then merge them back together with a O(N) procedure. A divide-and-conquer algorithm! Let’s model this as a hylomorphism. For simplicity (and to avoid the boilerplate of fixed points) we will use the direct definition of a hylo. hylo f g = f . fmap (hylo f g) . g The FFT will take an input list, properly divide it into even and odds indices and then conquer the solution by merging the subproblems into the output list. fft :: [Complex Double] -> [Complex Double] fft = hylo conquer divide Alright, time to implement the actual algorithm. Let’s begin with the divide step. Our algorithm must take a list of complex numbers and rewrite it as a binary tree whose leafs are sublists of odd dimension and nodes represent splitting an even-dimensional list. The data structure that represents this call tree is data CallTree a x = Leaf [a] | Branch x x instance Functor (CallTree a) where fmap _ (Leaf xs ) = Leaf xs fmap f (Branch xs ys) = Branch (f xs) (f ys) The bunk of the divide method consists of splitting a list into even and odd components. We can do this in O(n) steps using a fold from a list to a pair of lists. split :: [a] -> ([a], [a]) split = foldr f ([], []) where f a (v, w) = (a : w, v) Finally, divide represents one step of constructing the call tree. If the list’s length is even, we split it into smaller lists and store them in a Branch to later apply the Danielson-Lanczos Lemma. In case it is odd, there are no optimizations we can do, thus we just store the list’s DFT in a Leaf. divide v = if even (length v) then uncurry Branch (split v) else Leaf (dft v) This constructs the call tree. Now it’s time to deal with the conquer step. First we notice that thanks to the periodicity of the complex exponential (and the famous Euler formula), e^{{-2\pi i \over N } (k + {N \over 2})} = -e^{{-2\pi i \over N } k }. From this, we can reconstruct the FFT from the smaller subproblems as \begin{aligned} y_k &= y^{(e)}_k + e^{-{2\pi i \over N} k} \cdot y^{(o)}_k, \\ y_{k+{N \over 2}} &= y^{(e)}_k - e^{-{2\pi i \over N} k} \cdot y^{(o)}_k. \end{aligned} In Haskell, we can apply both the reconstruction formulas and then concatenate the results. conquer (Leaf v) = v conquer (Branch ye yo) = zipWith3 f [0..] ye yo ++ zipWith3 g [0..] ye yo where dim = fromIntegral (2 * length ye) f k e o = e + cis (-2 * pi * k / dim) * o g k e o = e - cis (-2 * pi * k / dim) * o ## Conclusion The main advantage of writing code like this is that it is extremely modularized. We have many small almost-independent snippets of code that are combined through the magic of a hylo into an extremely powerful algorithm. As bonus, if you want to test this code by yourself, you can also invert the fft to recover the original coefficients in O(N \log N) through ifft x = fmap ((/dim) . conjugate) . fft . fmap conjugate x
where dim = fromIntegral (length x)

Another interesting fact I’ve noticed is that, when working with Doubles, the fft has much less rounding errors than the dft. This probably occurs because we make less floating-point operations and not because of the hylomorphism. But I thought it worth noticing anyway.

Well, it’s all for today. Good morphisms to everyone!

1. In this context, life gets much easier if our vectors are zero-indexed.↩︎